Baby with Three Arms (Liu Junjie - China)

This 2-month-old baby named Liu Junjie from Anhui Province, China, was born with a third arm on 2006. Doctors successfully removed the extremely rare and well-developed third arm, but the baby required long-term physical therapy to gain function in his remaining hand, which has no palm and flexes in either direction. "We're hoping to exchange information with doctors who've dealt with similar cases anywhere in the world," said Chen, head of the orthopedics department at Shanghai Children's Medical Center. "This is so rare that we have virtually no information to go on."

World's Largest Hand (Lui Hua - China)

Lui Hua suffers from a rare condition known as macrodactyly. When he was hospitalized in Shanghai on July 2007, his left thumb measured 10.2 inches and his index finger measured close to 12. On July 20 surgeons undertook a seven-hour operation to reduce the size of Liu's fingers and thumb. Doctors removed 11 pounds of flesh and bone in the procedure. A second surgery is scheduled to take place. Enlarged limbs can be caused by a number of medical conditions. Lymphedema is perhaps the most common cause and results in some extraordinarily enlarged limbs.

Malaria - the disease

Published by Bupa's health information team, June 2008.

This factsheet is for people who have malaria, or who would like information about it. For information on how to prevent getting malaria, see Related topics.

Malaria is an infectious disease mainly found in tropical areas such as Sub-Saharan Africa, Central and South America, the Indian subcontinent, South East Asia and the Pacific islands (these are known as malarious regions). It's caused by being bitten by a mosquito carrying a type of parasite called Plasmodium.

About malaria

There are two categories of malaria.

• Malignant malaria causes symptoms straight away and can be mild or severe. It's caused by one type of malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum.
• Benign malaria is mild but may have a dormant stage and can cause relapses. This is caused by the other types of malaria parasite (for more information, see Causes).

Around 2,000 people a year in the UK get infected with malaria when abroad.

Causes

Malaria is caused by infection with a parasite called Plasmodium that is transmitted by mosquitos.

Symptoms

The first symptoms of malaria are like having the flu. You may have:

• a headache
• aching muscles
• tummy ache
• weakness or lack of energy

A day or so later, your temperature may rise (up to 40°C) and you may have:

• a fever
• shivers
• mild chills
• a severe headache
• a loss of appetite
• vomiting
• diarrhoea

National Cancer Control Programmes

Each year, cancer affects more than 10 million people worldwide and kills 6 million, even though many cases are preventable or treatable through early detection. Without effective control of the disease, these figures will...

Kids, Adults React Equally to Allergy Patch Tests

TUESDAY, Oct. 21 (HealthDay News) -- Adults and children who have allergy patch tests are equally likely to react to skin allergens, but they tend to react to different types of skin allergens, a new study finds.

Dr. Kathryn A. Zug, of Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center in Lebanon, N.H., and her colleagues found rates of positive tests for at least one allergen were about the same among children (51.2 percent) and adults (54.1 percent). They compared 391 children under the age of 18 and 9,670 adults aged 19 and older.

However, the study found "significant differences between the frequency of individual positive reactions to allergen patch tests in children and adults; children were more likely to have reactions to nickel, cobalt, thimerosal and lanolin, whereas adults were more likely to have positive reactions to neomycin, fragrance mix, M. pereirae (balsam of Peru [an extract from the balsam tree used as an alternative therapy]) and quaternium 15," the researchers wrote.

They found that some children reacted to supplemental allergens not included in common patch test series (15 percent) or in commercially available tests (39 percent). Compared to adults, children with a positive reaction were more likely to have atopic dermatitis (reactions on skin not directly in contact with an allergen) included as one of their final diagnoses -- 34 percent vs. 11.2 percent.

The study was published in the October issue of the Archives of Dermatology.

"Patch testing in children suspected of having allergic contact dermatitis is a valuable endeavor. Despite their limited back size, an expanded allergen series helps to identify important positive relevant allergens. Allergen concentration does not need modification for testing in children," the researchers concluded. "The top 45 allergens with the most frequent positive and relevant reactions reported in this study should serve as a guide to patch testing in children suspected of having allergic contact dermatitis in North America. Including supplemental allergens to the patch test materials based on clinical suspicion is also useful in some patients."

Researchers Identify Achilles Heel of Common Childhood Tumor

FINDINGS:
Researchers have, for the first time, found a mechanism for the rapid growth of the benign blood vessel tumor known as infantile hemangiomas, the most common tumor found in children. The findings implicate gene mutations that facilitate the abnormal activity of a hormone called VEGF, and suggest that anti-VEGF therapies—already approved for other conditions—may be an effective treatment.

RELEVANCE:
The cause of infantile hemangioma tumor growth has been a mystery until now, and invasive treatments have been the norm. This study is the first to describe a mechanism that impacts tumor growth, and the therapy it suggests would be a non-invasive alternative to current methods, which can cause permanent scars.

Dr. Bjorn Olsen

BOSTON, Mass. (Oct. 19, 2008) — Researchers have discovered a mechanism for the rapid growth seen in infantile hemangioma, the most common childhood tumor.

The tumors, which are made up of proliferating blood vessels, affect up to 10 percent of children of European descent, with girls more frequently afflicted than boys. The growths appear within days of birth—most often as a single, blood-red lump on the head or face—then grow rapidly in the ensuing months. The development of infantile hemangioma slows later in childhood, and most tumors disappear entirely by the end of puberty. However, while the tumors are benign, they can cause disfigurement or clinical complications. This new research offers hope for the most severe of these cases, pointing at a potential, non-invasive treatment for the condition.

These findings, the result of a collaboration between scientists from Harvard Medical School and the Harvard School of Dental Medicine, Children’s Hospital Boston, and the de Duve Institute at the Catholique University of Louvain in Brussels, will be published October 19 in Nature Medicine.

In this study, researchers looked at tissue isolated from nine distinct hemangioma tumors. They found that the endothelial cells that lined the affected blood vessels were all derived from the same abnormal cell. Like other tumors, hemangiomas are caused by the abnormal proliferation of tissue. Since no other type of cell within the tissue displayed the same self-replicating tendency, the scientists concluded that the endothelial cells were the source of the tumors’ growth.

Looking further, the team discovered that the endothelial cells behaved as if they were activated by a hormone called vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). VEGF usually binds to a specific receptor, one that sits on the outskirts of the cell and prevents VEGF from telling the cell to proliferate. However, the researchers found that at least two gene mutations were capable of setting off a chain of events that ultimately stymied those receptors. That allowed VEGF to trigger unchecked growth in the endothelial cells.

These findings open up new treatment options, according to study leader Bjorn R. Olsen, the Hersey Professor of Cell Biology at Harvard Medical School and Professor of Developmental Biology and Dean for Research at Harvard School of Dental Medicine. “What the data suggests is that any therapy that is directed against vascular endothelial growth factor—anti-VEGF therapy—is the rational therapy to use in these tumors,” says Olsen.

This will be good news to the many children and families affected by the disorder. Though most cases have little impact on children’s lives and many cases even go unnoticed, Olsen estimates that 10 percent of infantile hemangioma sufferers experience significant side-effects. These can include psychological stress brought on by the social challenges of disfigurement, as well as physical complications caused by large, badly-placed tumors that obstruct vision, respiration, or other bodily functions.

Anti-VEGF therapies have already been approved for other conditions, including macular degeneration and certain types of cancer. The next step for Olsen’s team is to get approval to test these therapies in clinical trials.

Meanwhile, Olsen and his colleagues continue to mine these tumors for more answers. “After finding out why these tumors grow, we are now starting to direct our research at understanding why they regress,” he said. “Knowing that and being able to induce that regression in the rapidly growing tumors, or induce regression of the blood vessels in malignant tumors, would be very effective.”

This research was supported by the John B. Mulliken Foundation and the National Institutes of Health.

Written by Veronica Meade-Kelly

CITATION:

Nature Medicine, Online October 19, 2008.

“Suppressed NFAT-dependent VEGFR1 expression and constitutive VEGFR2 signaling in infantile hemangioma”

Masatoshi Jinnin (1), Damian Medici (1), Lucy Park (1), Nisha Limaye (2), Yanqiu Liu (1), Elisa Boscolo (3), Joyce Bischoff (3), Miikka Vikkula (2), Eileen Boye (1) & Bjorn R. Olsen (1)

(1) Department of Developmental Biology, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, Boston, MA
(2) Human Molecular Genetics, de Duve Institute, Catholique University of Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
(3) Vascular Biology Program, Department of Surgery, Children’s Hospital Boston, MA

CONTACT:
Alyssa Kneller
public_affairs@hms.harvard.edu
617.432.0442

Harvard Medical School has more than 7,500 full-time faculty working in 11 academic departments located at the School's Boston campus or in one of 47 hospital-based clinical departments at 18 Harvard-affiliated teaching hospitals and research institutes. Those affiliates include Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Cambridge Health Alliance, Children's Hospital Boston, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Forsyth Institute, Harvard Pilgrim Health Care, Hebrew SeniorLife, Joslin Diabetes Center, Judge Baker Children's Center, Immune Disease Institute, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Massachusetts General Hospital, McLean Hospital, Mount Auburn Hospital, Schepens Eye Research Institute, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital, and VA Boston Healthcare System.

Is there a cure Aids/HIV?

There is no cure for HIV. HIV is a virus, and no cure has been found for any type of virus. Recently, doctors have been able to control the virus once a person is infected, which means that a person with HIV can stay healthy for longer, but they have not managed to get rid of the virus in the body completely.

What is 'safe sex'?

Safe sex means sexual activities which you can do even if one person is infected with HIV, and they definitely won't pass it on to the other person. Loads of activities are completely safe. You can kiss, cuddle, massage and rub each other's bodies. But if you have any cuts or sores on your skin, make sure they are covered with plasters (band-aids). Nothing you do on your own can cause you to get HIV - you can't infect yourself by masturbation.

So how do you get infected with HIV?

HIV is passed on in the sexual fluids or blood of an infected person, so if infected blood or sexual fluid gets into your body, you can become infected. This usually happens by either having sexual intercourse with an infected person or by sharing needles used to inject drugs with an infected person. People can also become infected by being born to a mother who has HIV and a very small number of people become infected by having medical treatment using infected blood transfusions.

HIV can't be caught by kissing, hugging or shaking hands with an infected person, and it can't be transmitted by sneezes, door handles or dirty glasses.

How long does it take for HIV to cause AIDS?

The length of time between being infected with HIV and being diagnosed with AIDS depends on lots of different things. These days, there are many drugs that can be used to help people with HIV, and most doctors believe that a lot of people can be treated for a very long time. Many people do not know exactly when they were infected with HIV, and the length of time between this happening and them being diagnosed with AIDS can be very variable.

What's the difference between HIV and AIDS?

HIV is the virus that causes AIDS. HIV stands for the 'Human Immunodeficiency Virus' and AIDS stands for the 'Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome'. AIDS is a serious condition in which the body's defences against some illnesses are broken down. This means that people with AIDS can get many different kinds of diseases which a healthy person's body would normally fight off quite easily.

Isn't it only a problem for adults?

No. HIV is a big problem for young people, as well as adults. In 2007, it is estimated that there were 2 million people under 15 living with HIV.

"I am 15 years old and my best friend who is a male has AIDS and we were really close so one night we experimented and after the fact that we "did it" he told me that he had AIDS." - Monica

What's the big deal about HIV/AIDS?

It's easy to think that AIDS is something for other people to worry about - gay people, drug users, people who sleep around. This is wrong - all teens, whoever they are, wherever they live need to take the threat of HIV seriously. To be able to protect yourself, you need to know the facts, and know how to avoid becoming infected.

What is DNA?

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA).

The information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all people. The order, or sequence, of these bases determines the information available for building and maintaining an organism, similar to the way in which letters of the alphabet appear in a certain order to form words and sentences.

DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units called base pairs. Each base is also attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule. Together, a base, sugar, and phosphate are called a nucleotide. Nucleotides are arranged in two long strands that form a spiral called a double helix. The structure of the double helix is somewhat like a ladder, with the base pairs forming the ladder’s rungs and the sugar and phosphate molecules forming the vertical sidepieces of the ladder.

An important property of DNA is that it can replicate, or make copies of itself. Each strand of DNA in the double helix can serve as a pattern for duplicating the sequence of bases. This is critical when cells divide because each new cell needs to have an exact copy of the DNA present in the old cell.

How much people tip

Using the chart on the left, for example, you can compare how many people tip from 11-15% as opposed to over 20%. You can also compare the tipping habits of men vs. the tipping habits of women.

Hepatitis B

1. Why get vaccinated?

Hepatitis B is a serious disease.
The hepatitis B virus can cause short-term (acute) illness that leads to:

• loss of appetite
• diarrhea and vomiting
• tiredness
• jaundice (yellow skin or eyes)
• pain in muscles, joints, and stomach

It can also cause long-term (chronic) illness that leads to:

• liver damage (cirrhosis)
• liver cancer
• death

About 1.25 million people in the U.S. have chronic hepatitis B virus infection.

Each year it is estimated that:

• 200,000 people, mostly young adults, get infected with hepatitis B virus
• More than 11,000 people have to stay in the hospital because of hepatitis B
• 4,000 to 5,000 people die from chronic hepatitis B

Hepatitis C: Safe to breastfeed?

I am a Maternity Support Nurse and have a client who is a Hepatitis C carrier. She is pregnant, and thought she would be unable to breastfeed, until she met me! I recall reading that Hepatitis C carriers could breastfeed their babies safely. Is this true?

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is contracted through the fecal-oral route, sexual contact, blood products and the use of contaminated needles by drug users. At this time, it is not known if breastfeeding is a route of transmission for HCV. It takes an average of 13 years to develop symptoms, so many infected people don't even realize that they have the virus. In approximately half of all cases they become chronically affected, with about 20 percent developing chronic liver disease.

The U.S. Food And Drug Administration has found "no evidence ... to support any special treatments or precautions for pregnant women (who are carriers of HCV) and their offspring." (1994) Though the U.S. Centers for Disease Control give no recommendations in regard to this issue, an official stated that breastfeeding is not contraindicated under normal circumstances, meaning mother's nipples are not bleeding, and no sores are present in the baby's mouth. (Breastfeeding Answer Book, 1997) It also seems prudent to avoid breastfeeding if the mother is in the acute stage of the illness.

At this point in time, the research in this area is not conclusive. Most of the studies do involve only small numbers. Larger study populations are needed. Research shows that although one or two breastfed infants in all the studies were infected with hepatitis C, this is consistent with the rates for (vertical) transmission from artificially-fed mom to baby. According to Lawrence Gartner, MD, Professor of Pediatrics and Obstetrics/Gynecology at the The University of Chicago, "while considering the 'theoretical' risk of transmission of hepatitis C in breastmilk, one must also consider the equally important theoretical possibility that the breastfed infant of a mother with hepatitis C virus may actually be protected from the development of hepatitis C liver disease...Studies of hepatitis B in China many years ago suggested that breastfed infants of hepatitis B carrier mothers were less likely to develop chronic hepatitis than artificially fed infants. It was believed that a passive-active immunization occurred in these breastfed infants...."

A breastfeeding mother will want to carefully weigh the distinct benefits of breastfeeding her baby, against the possible risk of transmission of HCV.

References:
Kurauchi O et al. Arch Gynec & Obstet 253:121, 1993
Lin et al. J. Pediatr 126:589, 1995
Ogasawara, S. et al. Lancet 341:561, 1993
Ruff A 1994
Uehara S et al. Tohoki J. Exp. Med. 171:195, 1993
Wejstal R et al. J Med Virol 30:178, 1990
Zanetti et al. Lancet 345:289, 1995

Breast Cancer Prevention Studies

1. What are breast cancer prevention studies?

   Breast cancer prevention studies are clinical trials (research studies) that explore ways of reducing the risk, or chance, of developing breast cancer. These studies usually involve women who have not had breast cancer but are at high risk of developing the disease. For example, it is clear that breast cancer occurs more often in women over the age of 60 years; so, these women have a higher risk of developing breast cancer than younger women. Other factors associated with increased risk include a personal or family history of breast cancer and changes in certain genes, such as BRCA1 and BRCA2.

   Most breast cancer prevention research is based on evidence linking the development of this disease, in many cases, with exposure to the hormone estrogen. The focus of several breast cancer prevention studies has been on testing the effectiveness of drugs called selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs). SERMs are drugs that have some antiestrogen properties and some estrogen-like properties. Their antiestrogen activity may help reduce the risk of breast cancer by blocking the effects of estrogen on breast tissue. Their estrogen-like properties may help prevent the loss of bone density in postmenopausal women; however, SERMs may cause bone loss in premenopausal women.

2. What is the Breast Cancer Prevention Trial (BCPT)?

   The Breast Cancer Prevention Trial (BCPT) was funded by the National Cancer InstituteNational Institutes of Health, and conducted by the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project (NSABP). The BCPT was designed to see whether tamoxifen (Nolvadex®), a SERM, could prevent breast cancer in women who are at an increased risk of developing this disease. The study began recruiting participants in April 1992 and closed to enrollment in September 1997. In the study, 13,388 premenopausal and postmenopausal women were enrolled at more than 300 centers across the United States and Canada and randomly assigned to receive tamoxifen or a placebo orally each day for 5 years. (NCI), a part of the

   Initial results of the BCPT were published in September 1998 (1). Among the women randomly assigned to take tamoxifen, there were 49 percent fewer diagnoses of invasive breast cancer than among the women randomly assigned to take the placebo. Women on tamoxifen also had 49 percent fewer diagnoses of noninvasive breast tumors, such as ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) or lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS).

   Most of the side effects associated with tamoxifen in the study were temporary. However, long-term increased risks were found for several serious health problems: endometrial cancer (cancer of the lining of the uterus), uterine sarcoma (cancer of the muscular wall of the uterus), pulmonary embolism (blood clot in the lung), deep vein thrombosis (blood clot in a large vein), and stroke. These increased risks for serious health problems were generally greater among postmenopausal women than among premenopausal women. The increased risk for endometrial cancer was found only among postmenopausal women.

   In November 2005, updated results of the BCPT were published (2). The updated results confirmed tamoxifen’s ability to reduce the risk of breast cancer in women at increased risk of developing the disease. Through 7 years of follow-up (that is, at least 2 years past the maximum time that women assigned to take tamoxifen received the drug), there were 43 percent fewer cases of invasive breast cancer diagnosed among the women assigned to tamoxifen than among the women assigned to the placebo. The reduction in risk of developing noninvasive breast tumors also persisted at 7 years, with 27 percent fewer diagnoses of noninvasive breast tumors among the women who took tamoxifen than among the women who took the placebo. In addition, the previously observed increased risks of stroke, pulmonary embolism, and deep vein thrombosis were somewhat reduced at 7 years of follow-up.

   In October 1998, based on the initial results of the BCPT, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the use of tamoxifen for the prevention of breast cancer in women at high risk of developing the disease.

   More information about the BCPT is available on NCI’s Web site at http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/digestpage/BCPT on the Internet.
   

3. What is the Study of Tamoxifen and Raloxifene (STAR)?

   The Study of Tamoxifen and Raloxifene, known as STAR, was a follow-up study to the BCPT. In STAR, another SERM called raloxifene (Evista®) was compared with tamoxifen in preventing breast cancer in postmenopausal women at increased risk of developing the disease. The study, which was funded by NCI and conducted by the NSABP, involved more than 19,000 postmenopausal women who were at least 35 years of age and were at increased risk of developing breast cancer. The women were randomly assigned to receive tamoxifen or raloxifene orally each day for 5 years. STAR began recruiting participants in July 1999 and completed enrollment in November 2004. More than 200 centers across the United States, Canada, and Puerto Rico participated in the study.

   Initial results from STAR were published in June 2006 (3). The results showed that raloxifene and tamoxifen are equally effective in reducing breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women who are at increased risk of the disease. Both drugs reduced the risk of developing invasive breast cancer by about 50 percent. However, raloxifene, unlike tamoxifen, did not reduce the risk of noninvasive breast tumors, such as DCIS and LCIS.

   Information collected from STAR participants about their physical and mental healthsignificant differences between the women who took raloxifene and those who took tamoxifen; however, women in the tamoxifen group reported better sexual functioning. Although symptom severity in the study was generally low, women in the tamoxifen group also reported more vasomotor problems (e.g., hot flashes, cold sweats), gynecologic problems (e.g., bleeding or spotting, vaginal discharge), bladder problems (e.g., difficulty with bladder control when laughing or crying), and leg cramps; women in the raloxifene group reported more musculoskeletal problems (e.g., joint pain, muscle stiffness), pain during sexual intercourse, and weight gain (4). revealed no

   With regard to risks for serious health problems, there were fewer cases of endometrial cancer, pulmonary embolism, and deep vein thrombosis among the women who took raloxifene. There was no difference in the incidence of stroke between the raloxifene group and the tamoxifen group.

   More information about STAR is available on NCI’s Web site at http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/digestpage/STAR on the Internet.

   In September 2007, the FDA approved raloxifene to reduce the risk of invasive breast cancer in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis and in postmenopausal women at high risk for invasive breast cancer. Raloxifene was approved by the FDA as a treatment for osteoporosis in 1999.

4. What other breast cancer prevention studies are being funded by NCI?

   NCI is supporting additional clinical studies to determine whether other drugs or natural products are able to help prevent breast cancer in women who are at increased risk of developing the disease. Drugs called aromatase inhibitors (AIs) are being tested by NCI in a few small studies.

   AIs block the activity of an enzyme called aromatase, which the body uses to make estrogen. Although the ovary is the main site of aromatase and estrogen production in a woman’s body, other tissues, including adipose (fat), bone, and brain tissue, make these substances as well.

   Using AIs to block estrogen production in premenopausal women is not very effective, in part because the ovary is stimulated to make more aromatase (and, therefore, estrogen) when the blood level of estrogen falls below normal. This does not happen in postmenopausal women, whose ovaries have stopped making aromatase and estrogen. Therefore, AIs are being studied primarily in postmenopausal women.

   AIs have already been approved by the FDA for the treatment of hormone-sensitive breast cancer in postmenopausal women. All three FDA-approved AIs are being tested in breast cancer prevention studies. These drugs are anastrozole (Arimidex®), exemestaneletrozole (Femara®). (Aromasin®), and

   In addition, scientists are continuing to study the basic biology and genetics of breast cancer. This research may lead to other, better ways to prevent breast cancer.

   For information about ongoing clinical studies of breast cancer prevention, visit NCI’s Web site at http://www.cancer.gov or contact NCI’s Cancer Information Service (CIS) (see below).

5. What additional options are available for women at increased risk of breast cancer?

   Doctors generally suggest that high-risk women be closely monitored and have regular medical checkups, so that if breast cancer develops, it is likely to be detected at an early stage, when it is most treatable (5). These women may also consider participating in breast cancer prevention studies, taking tamoxifen or raloxifene, or undergoing preventivesurgery to reduce breast cancer risk.

   Preventive mastectomy is surgery to remove one or both breasts in an effort to prevent or reduce the risk of breast cancer (6). Existing data suggest that preventive mastectomy may significantly reduce (by about 90 percent) the chance of developing breast cancer in women at high risk of developing the disease due to BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene mutations (7). Other data suggest that preventive oophorectomy (surgery to remove the ovaries) in women at high risk of ovarian cancer because of BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene mutations may also reduce the risk of breast cancer by about 50 percent (8).

   More information about preventive mastectomy can be found in the NCI fact sheet Preventive Mastectomy: Questions and Answers, which is available at http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Therapy/preventive-mastectomy on the Internet.

   The decision to join a clinical study, take medication, or undergo preventive surgery is an individual one. With any medical procedure or intervention, both the benefits and the risks of the treatment must be considered. The balance of these factors will vary depending on a woman’s personal and family health history and how she weighs the benefits and risks. Women who are considering surgery or other steps to reduce the risk of breast cancer should discuss their personal risk factors with their doctor.
   

6. Where can women learn more about estimating their risk for breast cancer?

   NCI’s Cancer Risk: Understanding the Puzzle Web site is an interactive site with information to help women make informed decisions about lowering their risk of cancer. It includes a section on breast cancer where women can find out the basics about breast cancer risk, determine which risk factors apply to them, and identify ways to reduce their risk. It includes questions women can ask their doctors about their risk for breast cancer. The site also includes links to NCI’s Breast Cancer Risk Assessment Tool and tips on how to analyze stories in the news about cancer. This site is available at http://understandingrisk.cancer.gov on the Internet.

   Additional information can be found in the PDQ® Breast Cancer Prevention summary for patients. This summary of information from PDQ, NCI’s comprehensive cancer information database, provides information about breast cancer and how often it occurs, describes breast cancer prevention methods, and gives current facts about which people or groups of people would most likely be helped by following breast cancer prevention methods. This resource is available at http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/prevention/breast/patient on the Internet.

   People who are concerned about their cancer risk are encouraged to talk with their doctor.
   

Selected References

1. Fisher B, Costantino JP, Wickerham DL, et al. Tamoxifen for prevention of breast cancer: Report of the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project P–1 study. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 1998; 90(18):1371–1388.
2. Fisher B, Costantino JP, Wickerham DL, et al. Tamoxifen for the prevention of breast cancer: Current status of the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project P–1 study. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 2005; 97(22):1652–1662.
3. Vogel VG, Costantino JP, Wickerham DL, et al. Effects of tamoxifen vs raloxifene on the risk of developing invasive breast cancer and other disease outcomes: The NSABP Study of Tamoxifen and Raloxifene (STAR) P–2 trial. Journal of the American Medical Association 2006; 295(23):2727–2741.
4. Land SR, Wickerham DL, Costantino JP, et al. Patient-reported symptoms and quality of life during treatment with tamoxifen or raloxifene for breast cancer prevention: The NSABP Study of Tamoxifen and Raloxifene (STAR) P–2 trial. Journal of the American Medical Association 2006; 295(23):2742–2751.
5. Thull DL, Vogel VG. Recognition and management of hereditary breast cancer syndromes. The Oncologist 2004; 9(1):13–24.

Our Eyes

Our eyes are said to be the windows of our soul and in turn they are also our own little window to the world. It’s through our eyes that we see the beauty of the world: the colors, the shape, and the words written in books or even in warning signs. That’s why we have to take care of them all the time. Many even bank on their jobs with their eyes, so their eyes will have to be taken cared above all things. Before something could happen to your eyes, here are some common conditions that could happen to your eye and their possible prevention.

Cataracts – This is probably the most common of all serious eye diseases. Cataract is generally a clouding of the clear part of the eye making the person unable to see clearly. The reasons for this condition are usually associated with old age. But there are also other causes of cataracts that afflict millions everyday; although very rarely, some are born with the disease. Poor nutrition could also be associated with the disease, especially the lack of Vitamin A. Some could be the side effects of drugs and one of the known culprits is steroids.

Glaucoma – To put it simply, glaucoma targets your optic nerve which connects the eyes to the brain and will render you blind in no time. This is a common and the scariest eye condition since it doesn’t really show symptoms to anyone. It’s being dubbed as a “silent thief in the night” by some eye doctors because there’s no way of telling someone has glaucoma from the naked eye. Although there is no specific symptom, it could be safely said that most of those experiencing this condition are those who are more than 50 years old. It could also be attributed to heredity. Steroids and high eye pressure is also one of the reasons for glaucoma.

Macular Degeneration – This type of eye condition refers to the macula of the eye. In this condition the person will usually have a different image compared to normal persons. The reason for this is because of the increased pressure of blood vessel that directly affects the eye. This disease is quite easy to detect as usually only one eye will be affected. Unfortunately, it’s not that easy to remove. It will require a surgical operation if it’s too late.

Detached Retina - Located at the back of the eye, retina is considered as the cover of the eye and the extension of the brain. When fluids go to the eye, the retina will basically be one of the things that will be affected. When that happens, it will lose its ability to attach itself to the back of the eye. Usually, detached retina is a complication from other diseases and it’s also hereditary. The common symptoms of this condition are white flashes in the darkness, and dark spots in the presence of light. As soon as you notice these symptoms, consult a doctor immediately.

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Birth size linked to breast cancer risk: new medical study

Posted: September 30, 2008, 5:05 PM by Shereen Dindar World, News, Science & Health, Health, life

The size of a female baby at birth might affect the likelihood of her developing breast cancer later in life, says a new study published in PLoS Medicine. Although studies have been done before on the issue, this one provides some of the most conclusive evidence yet. The study evaluated 32 previously published and unpublished studies on the issue, looking at 22,000 cases of breast cancer among more than 600,000 women. Lead researcher, Isabel dos Santos Silva (MD, PhD), found the longer the length of the baby, the more likely breast cancer was to develop. This association also existed for baby weight, but to a lesser extent.

Experts are warning there is no need for women panic, if they were a bigger baby. They have not determined why this association exists, and thus, have not made special recommendations for women who were larger babies. The normal rules apply for all women. While it was once suggested to do a breast self-examination once a month, doctors now say that getting to know what is normal for your breasts is more effective in preventing cancer. Here are some screening guidelines from the Canadian Cancer Society:

Age 40 to 49 -- Have a clinical breast examination by a trained healthcare professional at least every 2 years. Talk to your doctor about your risk of breast cancer, along with the benefits and risks of mammography.

Age 50 to 69 -- Have a clinical breast examination by a trained healthcare professional at least every 2 years.Have a mammogram every 2 years.

Age 70 or older -- Talk to your doctor about how often you should be tested for breast cancer.

So while this study hasn't prompted new medical recommendations, we can all take comfort in the fact that progress is being made towards discovering the mystery causes of breast cancer.

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